GLOSSARY OF PRESERVATION TERMS
By Ian Gilmour and Hannah Frost
| TERM |
DEFINITION |
| ½ inch Open reel: EIAJ | Probably the first affordable video recorders in widespread use starting around 1968, these [trans]portable machines produce adequate, but not brilliant pictures and sound. One of the first systems to use 'azimuth recording' without a guard-band, where adjacent tracks touch, but have heads angled in different directions to minimise cross-talk. 2 video heads rotate on opposite ends of a bar, 180° apart, while the 'drum' remains stationary. This can cause problems as tapes age and become sticky. Original machines were monochrome, but color was employed on later models. |
| ½ inch Other ½" reel, EIAJ-2, LDL | EIAJ-2 is a single reel cartridge version of EIAJ. |
| ½ inch Unknown | Use this value only if you know that the tape is ½" wide, but you are unsure of the exact format. |
| 1 inch Other type: Type-A, Sony 2-head EV2xx, EV3xx, IVC800/900, HDD-1000 | |
| 1 inch SMPTE type B open reel | Type B was developed by Bosch/BTS in 1976 and was more common in Europe than elsewhere. Like type A & C the tape speed is close to 9.6 inches/sec, but its small recording head drum, less than 2 inches diameter, spins at 9000 rpm to produce a segmented recording, in which each video field is spread over 5 or 6 successive helical tracks. |
| 1 inch SMPTE type C open reel | One of the last truly multi-vendor standards, [SMPTE 18, 19, 20M] derived from type A, but with a less complicated tape path. The relatively large 5.3 inch diameter head drum spins at 3600 rpm to record single-field helical video tracks just over 16 inches long, inclined at a little over 2½ degrees from the edge of the tape. With 3 heads evenly spaced around the scanner wheel, 1" type C could record and play in slow-motion or still-frame. |
| 1 inch Unknown | Use this value only if you know that the tape is 1" wide, but you are unsure of the exact format. |
| 16 mm | A cheaper and more compact format for film-stock and hardware, 16mm still runs at 24 frames/sec, but has 40 frames per foot, and a single perforation per frame.Camera negative usually has double rows of perforations, one along each side, while sound prints and super 16 have a single row. Single perf. is designated A- or B-wind according to which way the emulsion is oriented. |
| 2 inch Other type: Octaplex, Ampex VTR8000, VR1500, IVC9000, JVC KV1, etc. | |
| 2 inch Quadruplex open reel | The video was recorded by a 4-head drum rotating perpendicular to the direction of tape travel, resulting in a series of transverse tracks which inclined slightly due to the movement of the tape. Older tapes had a 1.7mm wide mono audio track along the upper edge, with a second cue track just above the control track on the lower edge, while later stereo tapes had left and right audio above the video, with the same cue and control tracks below. |
| 2 inch Unknown | Use this value only if you know that the tape is 2" wide, but you are unsure of the exact format. |
| 28 mm | |
| 35 mm | |
| 35 mm 8-perf (VistaVision) | |
| 55mm | |
| 65mm | 65 mm is generally used as a camera negative, either for large-format contact printing for wide-screen exhibition or to serve as an original from which 35-mm prints can be produced by reduction with less grain and better definition than from 35-mm. The frame interval is normally 5 perf. Details are defined in SMPTE 145-1999. |
| 70 mm | A large screen film format defined in SMPTE 119-1999 which shares the same KS-type perforation dimensions as 65 mm neg. This 'upright' version of 70 mm is different to IMAX™ which has a lateral feed. |
| 8 mm | Regular 8mm film, known popularly as 'Standard 8' was introduced by Kodak in 1951 as a more economical format for home use. It was produced by slitting a 16mm film in half, and runs at 18 frames per second. |
| 9.5 mm | easily recongised by the distinctive central row of sprocket holes. |
| AAF | Advanced Authoring Format |
| Acclimatization areas | A room or storage space that allows film, recordings and other material to adjust between ambient conditions [i.e. room temperature] and cold, dry storage, with minimal stress, and without condensation forming. The process may last days or weeks. |
| Ampex DCT (Digital Component Tape) | Compressed, 10-bit digital component format with similar specifications to Digital Betacam but not as popular. Introduced by Ampex in 1993. Cassette sizes and running times same as D-2, 13 micron tape thickness. Many users of this format claim that it has the best quality of the compressed formats. Machines are solidly built with gentle tape handling, and many are still in use ten years after their introduction. |
Analog |
Traditional modes of recording or transmission, in which levels of audio, light and colour are registered onto a medium in direct proportion to the original source. This includes film and magnetic media as well as electro-mechanical and acoustic discs and cylinders. Although signals are a direct 'analogy' of the original, they may be affected also by the resolution, granularity and range of the medium. This can introduce noise and distortion, and limit the frequency response or bandwidth. |
| Audio recordings | Includes audio tape, discs and cylinders. |
| AVI | Audio/Video Interleaved file format. |
| Betacam (SMPTE type L) | [SMPTE 229, 230 & 238] based upon the original Betamax footprint, but with higher tape speed [118.582 mm/s], and seperate luminance and chrominance tracks for recording higher quality component video. Small cassette is the same size and shape as Betamax [96 X 156 X 25 mm], while the large cassette is 145 x 254 x 25 mm. |
| Betacam SP | A 'Superior Performance' version of Betacam was achieved by using a finer, higher coercivity metal particle recording layer, instead of oxide. The small cassettes [96 X 156 X 25 mm] use a safety plug, rather than the tab in oxide cassettes. Cassettes and boxes are often dark grey, and usually have the words 'Betacam SP', 'metal particle' or MP imprinted on them. |
| Betacam SX | This low-end digital format was introduced into an already confused marketplace by Sony in 1996. Roughly 10:1 compression and a low data-rate of 18Mb/s based upon a variant of MPEG-2 I-B coding [interframe] gave a low tape speed of 2.345 inches/sec which allows 192 minutes running time in the large cassette or up to 62 minutes in small cassettes. Cassettes and boxes are the same sizes and shapes as other Betacam formats, but normally bright yellow, and labelled as Betacam SX. Some machines play analog SP and SX, allowing backward compatibility. |
| Betamax (SMPTE type G) | Domestic ½ inch colour format [SMPTE 35M-1997] introduced by Sony in 1975. Supported by several manufacturers in both PAL and NTSC version, but eventually lost the market to VHS. Sony successfully re-introduced Betacam, a professional derivative using the same sized cassette [156 X 96 X 25 mm] with higher coercivity tape running at 3 times the speed 7 years later. |
| Cineon | A proprietary Kodak format for high-resolution digital film scanning. |
| Client demand for access | An organizaton may elect to copy an original moving image material when a user has requested access to it. This practice serves two pragmatic purposes. It applies to those materials in obsolete formats which are, therefore, difficult to play back. It is also based on the principle that copies of original materials should be provided for routine access purposes in otder to protect originals from damage that may occur during use. See also: Creation of preservation and access copies of originals. |
| Cold storage (-18º C to 0º C / -40º F to 32º F and 20-30% RH) | |
| Collection or title importance | A title or a collection of titles may be considered worthy of preservation attention due to its provenance, cultural or historic prominence, research value or financial value |
| Color restoration | |
| Conservation | |
| Cool storage (0º C to 16º C / 32º F to 60º F and 20-50% RH) | |
| Creation of preservation and access copies of originals | The production of copies of an original moving image material in order to protect the original item from damage due to replay, to insure the transfer of information from a deteriorating medium to a more stable format, and/or to provide access to material in an obsolete or otherwise inaccessible format. For analog materials, it is common practice to create a "preservation master" or "protection master" which adheres to high quality specifications appropriate to the original format and which can stand in for the original as necessary. It is also common to create an "access copy" or a "user copy" in an easy-to-use, affordable format for routine viewing purposes. Often, a high quality "duplication master" or "print master" is made for the purpose of creating user copies as needed. In the case of digital materials, clones of original items backed up redundantly on diverse media and stored in multiple locations serve as preservation copies. Access copies of digital materials are characterized by low resolution for ease of distribution and use. |
| D-1 | D-1 is an uncompressed digital component video standard, developed in 1987. Record and playback machines were manufactured by Sony and BTS/Philips. The tape is ¾" [19mm] wide. D-1, D-2 and D-6 cassettes are made in 3 sizes that share the same basic dimensions, described in ANSI/SMPTE 226M-1996. All cassette housings are 33 mm thick. Small cassettes are 172mm long and 109 mm wide. Medium cassettes are 254 mm long and 150 mm wide. Large cassettes are 366 mm long and 206 mm wide. There are 4 coding holes in the underside of the cassette which identify the tape thickness and format. D-1 tapes are 13 or 16 microns thick, and use an oxide coating of roughly 850 Oe. 13 micron tapes have a playing time of 11, 34 or 76 minutes for small, medium and large cassettes. Tape speed is 286.5 mm/sec. |
| D-10 (IMX MPEG-2) | A mid-range digital format introduced by Sony in 1996. Records and plays MPEG-2 I-frame [intraframe] at 3 data-rates of 30, 40, and 50Mb/s or 3.3 to 5:1 compression. tape speed of 2.345 inches/sec which allows fairly long running times in the same 2 cassette sizes as the rest of the Betacam family. Cassettes and boxes are green. Some machines play analog SP, SX and/or Digital Betacam, allowing backward compatibility. |
| D-11, HDCAM | Yet another Betacam format, this time designed for recording compressed high-definition video. |
| D-2 | D-2 [SMPTE 245M-248M] is a digital composite video standard, introduced in 1989. Record and playback machines were manufactured by Sony and Ampex. The tape is ¾" or roughly 19mm wide. D-2 cassettes are made in 3 sizes that are all 33 mm thick. Small cassettes are 172mm long and 109 mm wide. Medium cassettes are 254 mm long and 150 mm wide. Large cassettes are 366 mm long and 206 mm wide. There are 4 coding holes in the underside of the cassette which identify the tape thickness and format. D-2 tapes are 13 microns thick, and use a metal particle coating of roughly 1500 Oe. 13 micron tapes have a playing time of 31, 93 or 207 minutes for small, medium and large cassettes. Tape speed is 131.7 mm/sec. |
| D-3 | D-3 [SMPTE 245M-248M] is a digital composite video standard, introduced by Panasonic in 1991, which performs a similar function to D-2, but in a totally different format which solves some of the tracking problems of the former. The tape is ½" or roughly 12.65mm wide. Cassettes are made in 3 sizes that share the same basic dimensions as D-5, described in ANSI/SMPTE 263M-1996. All 3 sizes of cassette housings are 25 mm thick. Small cassettes are 161mm long and 98 mm wide; medium cassettes are 212 x 124 mm and large cassettes are 296 x 167 mm. There are 3 identifying holes in the underside of the cassette which identify the tape thickness and format. D-3 tapes are 11 or 14 microns thick, and use a metal particle coating of 1600 Oe. Small cassettes run for 32, 40, 50 or 64 minutes, depending on hub size and tape thickness. Medium cassettes run for 80, 95, 100 or 125 minutes. Large cassettes have 44 mm hub diameter, with running times of 185 and 245 minutes for 11 and 14 µm tapes. Tape speed is 83.88 mm/sec. In 525-line/60Hz systems [US, Japan] each field covers 6 tracks and the scanner or head drum rotates at just under 90 rpm as defined in SMPTE 264M. 625/50 systems use 8-tracks and 100 rpm SMPTE 265M. |
| D-5 | D-5 is a 10-bit digital uncompressed component video system, introduced by Panasonic in 1991. The tape is ½" or roughly 12.65mm wide. Cassettes are made in 3 sizes, all 25 mm thick, that share the same basic dimensions as D-3, described in ANSI/SMPTE 263M-1996. Small cassettes are 161mm long and 98 mm wide; medium cassettes are 212 x 124 mm and large cassettes are 296 x 167 mm. There are 3 identifying holes in the underside of the cassette which identify the tape thickness and format. D-5 tapes are 11 or 14 microns thick, and use a metal particle coating of 1800 Oe. Small cassettes run for 16, 20, 25 or 32 minutes, depending on hub size and tape thickness. Medium cassettes run for 40, 47, 50 or 62 minutes. Large cassettes have one hub diameter, with running times of 93 and 123 minutes for 11 and 14 µm tapes. D-5 has the same scanner diameter and rpm as D-3, but has twice the number of heads and twice the tape speed [see ANSI/SMPTE 279M-1996]. It is thus possible to play back D-3 tapes on many D-5 machines, producing a digital component output. D-5 has two sets of 4 heads, and the tape speed is 168.228 mm/sec. There is also a compressed, high-definition version of D-5. |
| D-6 (Voodoo) | D-6 [SMPTE 277M & 278M] is the first high-definition digital uncompressed component video standard, introduced in 1996. Record and playback machines are manufactured by Philips/Thompson. The tape is ¾" or roughly 19mm wide. D-6 cassettes are made in 3 sizes [SMPTE 226M] that have the same basic dimensions as D-1 and D-2. All 3 sizes of cassette housings are 33 mm thick. Small cassettes are 172mm long and 109 mm wide. Medium cassettes are 254 mm long and 150 mm wide. Large cassettes are 366 mm long and 206 mm wide. There are 4 coding holes in the underside of the cassette which identify the tape thickness and format. D-6 tapes use designation F [1 0 1 0] are 11 microns thick, and use a metal particle coating of 1700 Oe with a playing time of 8, 28 or 64 minutes for small, medium and large cassettes. Tape speed is 497.419 mm/sec. |
| D-9 (Digital-S) | Just as the Betacam family evolved and devolved, so did the VHS family. The digital successor to M-II was a low-cost 10-bit 4:2:2 system with 3.3:1 DCT intraframe compression giving 50Mb/s data rate. Although Digital-S was adopted by some large broadcasters, it hasn't proven to be as popular as the numbers would suggest. |
| Data migration | Preserving digitised content at the bit-level by copying or cloning en-masse, usually with automated or robotic storage systems under software control. |
| Digital | Digital recording and transmission requires that continuous signals are broken down into numbers representing measurements of how the signal changes over time. |
| Digital 8 | |
| Digital Betacam | 10-bit digital component format with relatively modest 2.3 to 1 DCT compression. Still the most popular of the higher-quality formats. Introduced by Sony in 1992 as the successor to Betacam SP. Some Digital Betacam machines play back analog Betacam tapes. Large and small cassette sizes have running times similar to Betacam SP. 13 micron tape thickness. Cassettes and boxes are often dark blue, and labelled as Digital Betacam |
| Digital files | (.dif) |
| Digital restoration | |
| Disaster planning | Documented preparations for an organization's response in the event of a disaster, such as fire, an earthquake or flood. These plans include procedures and facilities for insuring the safety of staff members and also response and recovery facilities and procedures to prevent or limit damage to collection materials in the event of a disaster. |
| DPX | Digital Picture eXchange format SMPTE 268M. |
| DV, DVC-Pro [D-7] | The DV or Digital Video family uses ¼ inch tape cassettes over a range of formats from domestic to high definition. SMPTE 306 covers 25Mb/s video, SMPTE 307 describes the physical cassette; SMPTE 314 describes the data structure for Audio, Data and Compressed Video at 25 and 50 Mb/s; SMPTE 321M-2002 and SMPTE 322M-1999 cover the transmission and exchange of DV compressed video, audio and data over serial data transport interfaces, while SMPTE 374-376 deals with mapping ancillary data. |
| Exhibition programming needs | Organizations that offer public screenings of moving image materials may choose to create preservation or access copies of original items in accordance with exhibition program planning--both to provide a high-quality copy for exhibition and to provide access copies to attendees who want to view the exhibited item again. |
| Film Cleaning | |
| Film or magnetic tape rejuvenation (e.g., tape baking, unblocking) | Very basic facilities may conduct simple tape baking without accurate temperature or humidity regulation. Advanced restoration labs may offer low humidity rejuvenation with accurately controlled temperature, and sometimes, vacuum processing or interleaving which minimises risk to original material. |
| Films | |
| Film base | |
| Fundraising for preservation activities | The practice of seeking and securing funds to support efforts and programs designed to protect and extend the life of moving image collection materials. |
| Glass | |
| GXF | General eXchange Format [SMPTE ] |
| Hi 8 mm | |
| Imax (15/70 and 8/70) | |
| Lab equipment for creating preservation and access copies | |
| Lab equipped for conserving or restoring original materials | |
| Lab services | |
| M format (Recam) | May have been a challenger to Sony's Betacam as a serious analog component format, starting in 1982, but RCA [co-developer with Panasonic] dropped out of broadcast video shortly afterwards, and the format never gained much market-share. Same cassette housing as VHS, but just over 8 inches/sec. |
| M II (Panasonic component analog) | Analogue component format with separate luminance and chrominance tracks [SMPTE 249M-252M, 1996] introduced by Panasonic in 1987? as a competitor to Betacam SP, but not as popular. Cassettes are slightly larger than VHS, and use higher coercivity tape running at twice the speed. |
| Magnetic (acetate) | Magnetic full-coat or stripe with a cellulose acetate base. |
| Magnetic (polyester) | Magnetic full-coat or stripe with a polyester [PET] base. |
| Magnetic (unknown) | Use this value for media with a magnetic coating on an unknown base material. |
| Mini DV | The domestic version of Digital Video which has a similar data rate to DVC-Pro, but a much lower tape speed of just over 8mm/sec. This uses less tape but does not leave much margin for error in case of tape damage or other problems. |
| M-JPEG | Motion-JPEG is a format for digital images based upon a series of JPEG still images. It generally produces poorer quality for a given bit-rate than MPEG. |
| Monitoring environmental conditions of storage areas | The practice of measuring temperature and relative humidity levels within the spaces where archival materials are stored. Because storage facilities may not provide proper archival storage conditions (i.e., cool and dry with minimal fluctuation despite seasonal climate variations), it is useful to regularly monitor temperature and relative humidity levels, using instruments such as psychrometers, hygrothermographs, or dataloggers. |
| MP3 | An abbreviation for MPEG-1, Layer 3. |
| MPEG-1 | Defines the behaviour of decoders, allowing for future compatibility and improvement in quality as encoding techniques evolve. |
| MPEG-2 | A further development of MPEG-1 which covers interlaced video, surround sound and other refinements which enable higher quality for broadcast at bit rates up to 50 Mb/s. |
| MPEG-4 | |
| MXF | Material eXchange Format [SMPTE ] |
| Nitrate | |
| Noise and scratch removal | |
| Off-site storage | Facilities located at a distance from the organization's primary location that are used for storing collection materials. These may be materials that require special handling such as cold storage, which the organization is unable to provide at its primary facility. Other materials stored off-site may pose a danger to others, such as nitrate films. The distributed storage of copies of collection materials across several locations also protects against collection lost in the event of a disaster. |
| OMF | Open Media Format is a file format developed mainly by Avid, with collaboration from a number of other manufacturers. It includes video and audio, along with time-code and other data such as editing and compositing information. |
| Other ½" cassette: V2000, NV1500 | Includes ED Beta, introduced in 1987 as a competitor to S-VHS; similar to consumer Beta, but using metal tape. |
| Paper | |
| Perforation repair | |
| Photo-chemical: wet-gate | |
| Preservation | The range of practices and procedures necessary to ensure permanent or long-term accessibility (with a minimal loss of quality) of the visual or sonic content of collection materials. All aspects of preservation, including inspection, storage, handling, treatment and repair, selection, duplication, quality control, documentation, and disaster planning, are closely interrelated. All together, these activities serve to achieve the goal of prolonging the life and usability of moving image materials. |
| Perservation activities | Actions carried out by an organization that are directed at the care and longevity of collection materials. CF: Preservation |
| Preservation education and outreach | Activities and efforts initiated by an organization that serve to inform a designated communty about issues related to the preservation of moving image materials and arcives. An example is user training on the proper care and handling of collection materials. |
| Preservation facilities | |
| QuickTime | |
| RealVideo | |
| Re-housing into archival containers | Replacing the original container (box, can, sleeve, etc.) of a collection item with a new housing that provides improved protection from light, heat, moisture, dust and handling. Some archival containers also provide improved air circulation around the item and reduced exposure to, or contact with, acidic compounds that encourage deterioration. |
| Restoration | |
| Risk assessment | The process of identifying the risk to durability of an original material by considering the physical and technical characteristics pertaining to its relative stability and the ability to replay it with the necessary equipment over time. Some moving image materials are at greater risk of inaccessibility due to age, extent of physical deterioration or format obsolescence, than others. |
| Safety (acetate) | After a number of fires fuelled by nitrate-base film, manufacture of nitrate stock ceased in developed countries in 1951. Subsequently, base film for 35 mm was made from cellulose acetate, then, more recently, polyester. Amateur formats such as 16 and 8 mm were normally made from safety base. Safety means, in fact, that the film base is non-flammable, but not necessarily stable in the long-term. Specifications are referenced in SMPTE 223M-1996 and detailed in ANSI/ISO 543, ANSI IT9.6 which includes nitrogen analysis of the support film as well as the emulsion and any other applied coating or treatment such as protective lacquers. |
| Safety (polyester) | |
| Safety (unknown) | |
| Selection criteria for preservation | Factors related to materials and their use that are considered in the decision-making process for preservation copying. The cost of preserving moving image materials is high and the volume of items to preserve is generally large. It is often necessary for an organization to establish priorities among materials to be copied for preservation purposes. |
| Separate storage for materials afflicted with vinegar syndrome | Discrete, confined storage for those collection materials afflicted with vinegar syndrome, the chemical reaction that occurs during the deterioration of cellulose acetate film. The acidic by-product of the reaction, characterized by its strong odor, may react with susceptible materials, and in effect, the syndrome can spread. For this reason, affected materials should be separated from unaffected collection items. CF: Vinegar syndrome. |
| Splice repair | |
| Super 16 mm | Super 16 mm has a single row of sprocket holes, as for single perf. release prints, but instead of a soundtrack, the extra width is used for a larger, 1.66:1 image area. |
| Super 35 (Superscope 235) | |
| Super 8 mm | Super 8mm differs from regular 8mm by having smaller sprocket holes which line up with the center of the image frame, and a soundtrack area on the opposite edge. |
| S-VHS | A higher quality version of VHS with the same running speed. Most S-VHS machines replay standard VHS. |
| Systematically monitoring materials for deterioration | The periodic inspection of moving image materials for signs of media deterioration or contamination. Indications may include: a strong odor; biological contamination (mold or pests); delamination, shedding or other evidence that an item's structural integrity is at risk; foreign substances; or by-products of a chemical reaction. Use of A-D strips in the testing of cellulose acetate-based materials for vinegar syndrome is one means of monitoring. Regular visual and olfactory inspection of materials, assisted by tools such as A-D strips, allows the archivist to determine the rate of deterioration and to catch and mitigate deterioration in its early stages. |
| Tape Cleaning | Magnetic tape cleaning is usually done on purpose-built machines by rotating tissue-wipes, scrapers and/or vacuum. |
| U-Matic, High Band | The main development of the U-matic format was a more professional version with 50% greater bandwidth. Many BVU or Broadcast Video U-matic machines were used in professional broadcasting and production for a long period. |
| U-Matic, Low Band | The original low-end professional, light-industrial U-matic [SMPTE 21, 22, 31M] was widely marketed from 1971 by Sony, JVC,and Matsushita [Panasonic], and took hold in vast numbers through education and porta-pak field recording units.. |
| U-Matic, SP | The final evolution of U-matic was the 'Superior Performance version, with 7 MHz luminance bandwidth. It had greater uptake in NTSC regions. |
| U-Matic, Unknown | Use this value only if you know that the cassette is U-Matic, but you are unsure of the exact format. |
| VHS (SMPTE type H) | Introduced by Matsushita in 1976 as a competitor to Sony's Betamax which was released a year earlier, VHS has become the largest selling video format ever. The tape speed is only 33.35 mm/s [1.313"/s], so quite long playing times can be achieved in a fairly small cassette 162 X 104 X 25 mm. Shorter lengths up to 246 metres or 2 hours duration are 19 µm thick, while longer 3 and 4-hour tapes are 15 or 16 µm. A smaller cassette, VHS-C [compact] is used in camcorders. |
| Video 8 mm | From 1983 a consortium of Japaese and Nth American manufacturers produced a compact alternative to ½". |
| Video recordings | |
| Vinegar syndrome | The name given to the chemical reaction that can lead to the deterioration of cellulose acetate-based films. It results primarily from poor storage conditions (high temperature and humidity), that cause moisture to form inside the containers holding the film. This moisture reacts in turn with the acetate base to create acetic acid, the chief acid in vinegar. Consequently, affected films smell of vinegar--the reason this condition is called vinegar syndrome. If left unchecked, the process accelerates as the reaction feeds on itself--displaying what scientists call autocatalytic behavior. This eventually leads to shrinkage, embrittlement and buckling of the gelatin emulsion. A film affected with vinegar syndrome will contaminate nearby cellulose acetate-based films, so that vinegar syndrome can spread. CF: Separate storage for materials afflicted with vinegar syndrome |
| Vivo |